第三章

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  [152]. Lea and Webley, 「Money As Tool, Money As Drug: The Biological Psychology of a Strong Incentive.」

  [153]. In 2016, the Indian government removed 500- and 1,000-rupee bank notes. This decision was designed to reduce corruption. India is a cash economy, and at the time of the change, a large percentage of transactions were in notes of 500 rupees or more; thus, somewhat understandably, citizens were upset about the restriction of their use of these bills. 「India Scraps 500 and 1,000 Rupee Bank Notes Overnight,」 BBC, November 9, 2016,

  [154]. Y. Zhou, Y. Wang, L. L. Rao, L. Q. Yang, and S. Li, 「Money Talks: Neural Substrate of Modulation of Fairness by Monetary Incentives,」 Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 8 (2014): 150; C. C. Wu, Y. F. Liu, Y. J. Chen, and C. J. Wang, 「Consumer Responses to Price Discrimination: Discriminating Bases, Inequality Status, and Information Disclosure Timing Influences,」 Journal of Business Research 65, no. 1 (2012): 106-116; and T. Kim, T.Zhang, and M. I. Norton, 「Pettiness in Social Exchange,」 Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 148, no. 2 (2019): 361.

  [155]. A. Gasiorowska, L. N. Chaplin, T. Zaleskiewicz, S. Wygrab, and K. D. Vohs, 「Money Cues Increase Agency and Decrease Prosociality Among Children: Early Signs of Market-Mode Behaviors,」 Psychological Science 27, no. 3 (2016): 331-344. There is evidence that some of these experiments do not replicate, suggesting that there are factors that predict whether and when reminders of money shape our willingness to work versus help others. See E. M. Caruso, O. Shapira, and J. F. Landy, 「Show Me the Money: A Systematic Exploration of Manipulations, Moderators, and Mechanisms of Priming Effects,」 Psychological Science 28, no. 8 (2017): 1148-1159.

  [156]. H. E. Hershfield, C. Mogilner, and U. Barnea, 「People Who Choose Time over Money Are Happier,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 7 (2016): 697-706.

  [157]. T. Kasser, 「Materialistic Values and Goals,」 Annual Review of Psychology 67 (2016): 489-514.

  [158]. P. M. Gollwitzer, 「Implementation Intentions: Strong Effects of Simple Plans,」 American Psychologist 54, no. 7 (1999): 493.

  [159]. K. L. Milkman, J. Beshears, J. J. Choi, D. Laibson, and B. C. Madrian, 「Using Implementation Intentions Prompts to Enhance Influenza Vaccination Rates,」 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, no. 26 (2011): 10415-10420; K. L. Milkman, J. Beshears, J. J. Choi, D. Laibson, and B. C. Madrian, 「Planning Prompts As a Means of Increasing Preventive Screening Rates,」 Preventive Medicine 56, no. 1 (2013): 92-93; D. W. Nickerson and T. Rogers, 「Do You Have a Voting Plan? Implementation Intentions, Voter Turnout, and Organic Plan Making,」 Psychological Science 21, no. 2 (2010): 194-199; T. Rogers, K. L. Milkman, L. John, and M. I. Norton, 「Making the Best-Laid Plans Better: How Plan Making Increases Follow-Through,」 Behavioral Science and Policy (2013); and T. Rogers, K. L. Milkman, L. K. John, and M. I. Norton, 「Beyond Good Intentions: Prompting People to Make Plans Improves Follow-Through on Important Tasks,」 Behavioral Science and Policy 1, no. 2 (2015): 33-41.

  [160]. K. E. Lee, K. J. Williams, L. D. Sargent, N. S. Williams, and K. A. Johnson, 「40-Second Green Roof Views Sustain Attention: The Role of Micro-Breaks in Attention Restoration,」 Journal of Environmental Psychology 42 (2015): 182-189; and K. A. MacLean, E. Ferrer, S. R. Aichele, D. A. Bridwell, A. P. Zanesco, T. L. Jacobs, B. G. King, et al., 「Intensive Meditation Training Improves Perceptual Discrimination and Sustained Attention,」 Psychological Science 21, no. 6 (2010): 829-839.

  [161]. N. Fitz, K. Kushlev, R. Jagannathan, T. Lewis, D. Paliwal, and D. Ariely, 「Batching Smartphone Notifications Can Improve Well-Being,」 Computers in Human Behavior 101 (2019): 84-94.

  [162]. A. V. Whillans and F. S. Chen, 「Facebook Undermines the Social Belonging of First Year Students,」 Personality and Individual Differences 133 (2018): 13-16; and K. Burnell, M. J. George, J. W. Vollet, S. E. Ehrenreich, and M. K. Underwood, 「Passive Social Networking Site Use and Well-Being: The Mediating Roles of Social Comparison and the Fear of Missing Out,」 Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 13, no. 3 (2019).

  [163]. S. M. Schueller, 「Personality Fit and Positive Interventions: Extraverted and Introverted Individuals Benefit from Different Happiness Increasing Strategies,」 Psychology 3, no. 12 (2012): 1166.

  [164]. G. Tonietto and S. A. Malkoc, 「The Calendar Mindset: Scheduling Takes the Fun Out and Puts the Work In,」 Journal of Marketing Research 53, no. 6 (2016): 922-936.

  [165]. G. N. Tonietto, S. A. Malkoc, and S. M. Nowlis, 「When an Hour Feels Shorter: Future Boundary Tasks Alter Consumption by Contracting Time,」 Journal of Consumer Research 45, no. 5 (2019): 1085-1102.

  [166]. Ibid.

  [167]. G. M. Sandstrom and E. W. Dunn, 「Is Efficiency Overrated? Minimal Social Interactions Lead to Belonging and Positive Affect,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 54, no. 4 (2014): 437-442.

  [168]. M. S. Granovetter, 「The Strength of Weak Ties,」 in Social Networks, ed. S. Leinhart (New York: Academic Press, 1977), 347-367; and M. Granovetter, 「The Strength of Weak Ties: A Network Theory Revisited,」 Sociological Theory 1 (1983): 201-233.

  [169]. A. L. Sellier and T. Avnet, 「So, What If the Clock Strikes? Scheduling Style, Control, and Well-Being,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 107, no. 5 (2014): 791.

  [170]. T. Avnet and A. L. Sellier, 「Clock Time vs. Event Time: Temporal Culture or Self-Regulation?」 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47, no. 3 (2011): 665-667.

  [171]. For a review, see A. L. Sellier and T. Avnet, 「Scheduling Styles,」 Current Opinion in Psychology 26 (2019): 76-79.

  [172]. T. Rogers and K. L. Milkman, 「Reminders Through Association,」 Psychological Science 27, no. 7 (2016): 973-986.

  [173]. C. Blank, L. M. Giurge, L. Newman, and A. Whillans, 「Getting Your Team to Do More Than Meet Deadlines,」 hbr.org, November 15, 2019,

  [174]. A. Thibault Landry and A. Whillans, 「The Power of Workplace Rewards: Using Self-Determination Theory to Understand Why Reward Satisfaction Matters for Workers Around the World,」 Compensation and Benefits Review 50, no. 3 (2018): 123-148.

  [175]. M. Kosfeld and S. Neckermann, 「Getting More Work for Nothing? Symbolic Awards and Worker Performance,」 American Economic Journal: Microeconomics 3, no. 3 (2011): 86-99.

  [176]. L. Shen, A. Fishbach, and C. K. Hsee, 「The Motivating-Uncertainty Effect: Uncertainty Increases Resource Investment in the Process of Reward Pursuit,」 Journal of Consumer Research 41, no. 5 (2014): 1301-1315.

  [177]. G. Grolleau, M. G. Kocher, and A. Sutan, 「Cheating and Loss Aversion: Do People Cheat More to Avoid a Loss?」 Management Science 62, no. 12 (2016): 3428-3438.

  [178]. L. Pierce, A. Rees-Jones, and C. Blank, 「The Negative Consequences of LossFramed Performance Incentives」 (working paper, National Bureau of Economic Research, no. 26619, 2020).

  [179]. For a summary of the latest technology applications that are helping people take back their time, see an article I wrote on the topic: 「Our Smartphone Addiction Is Killing Us: Can Apps That Limit Screen Time Offer a Lifeline?」 Conversation, April 30, 2019,

  [180]. M. Zhu, Y. Yang, and C. K. Hsee, 「The Mere Urgency Effect,」 Journal of Consumer Research 45, no. 3 (2018): 673-690.

  [181]. C. Blank, L. M. Giurge, L. Newman, and A. Whillans, 「Getting Your Team to Do More Than Meet Deadlines,」 hbr.org, November 15, 2019,

  [182]. S. E. DeVoe and J. House, 「Time, Money, and Happiness: How Does Putting a Price on Time Affect Our Ability to Smell the Roses?」 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48, no. 2 (2012): 466-474; J. House, S. E. DeVoe, and C. B. Zhong, 「Too Impatient to Smell the Roses: Exposure to Fast Food Impedes Happiness,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 5, no. 5 (2014): 534-541. There is some debate about the replicability of these findings. This study failed to show that putting a financial value on time undermines leisure enjoyment: S. Connors, M. Khamitov, S. Moroz, L. Campbell, and C. Henderson, 「Time, Money, and Happiness: Does Putting a Price on Time Affect Our Ability to Smell the Roses?」 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 67 (2016): 60-64. However, studying time-money trade-offs among online workers who are willing to give away leisure for very small amounts of money might not be ideal. See S. E. DeVoe and J. House, 「Replications with MTurkers Who Are Na?ve Versus Experienced with Academic Studies: A Comment on Connors, Khamitov, Moroz, Campbell, and Henderson (2015),」 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 100, no. 67 (2016): 65-67. For a recent review of the current state of the literature, see S. E. DeVoe, 「The Psychological Consequence of Thinking About Time in Terms of Money,」 Current Opinion in Psychology 26 (2019): 103-105.

  [183]. J. Etkin, 「The Hidden Cost of Personal Quantification,」 Journal of Consumer Research 42, no. 6 (2016): 967-984.

  [184]. L. E. Aknin, E. W. Dunn, and M. I. Norton, 「Happiness Runs in a Circular Motion: Evidence for a Positive Feedback Loop Between Prosocial Spending and Happiness,」 Journal of Happiness Studies 13, no. 2 (2012): 347-355. M. A. Cohn and B. L. Fredrickson, 「In Search of Durable Positive Psychology Interventions: Predictors and Consequences of Long-Term Positive Behavior Change,」 Journal of Positive Psychology 5, no. 5 (2010): 355-366. B. L. Fredrickson, 「The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions,」 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 359, no. 1449 (2004): 1367-1377.

  [185]. G. Loewenstein, 「Hot-Cold Empathy Gaps and Medical Decision Making,」 Health Psychology 24, no. 4S (2005): S49. G. Loewenstein, 「Emotions in Economic Theory and Economic Behavior,」 American Economic Review 90, no. 2 (2000): 426-432; and G. Loewenstein and D. Schkade, 「Wouldn’t It Be Nice? Predicting Future Feelings,」 Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology (1999): 85-105.

  [186]. S. M. McCrea, 「Self-Handicapping, Excuse Making, and Counterfactual Thinking: Consequences for Self-Esteem and Future Motivation,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 95, no. 2 (2008): 274.

  [187]. P. A. Siegel, J. Scillitoe, and R. Parks-Yancy, 「Reducing the Tendency to Self-Handicap: The Effect of Self-Affirmation,」 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41, no. 6 (2005): 589-597.

  第四章

  [188]. A. Whillans, L. Macchia, and E. Dunn, 「Valuing Time over Money Predicts Happiness after a Major Life Transition: A Preregistered Longitudinal Study of Graduating Students,」 Science Advances 5, no. 9 (2019): eaax2615.

  [189]. K. Woolley and A. Fishbach, 「The Experience Matters More Than You Think: People Value Intrinsic Incentives More Inside Than Outside an Activity,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109, no. 6 (2015): 968.

  [190]. Whillans et al., 「Valuing Time over Money Predicts Happiness after a Major Life Transition: A Preregistered Longitudinal Study of Graduating Students.」

  [191]. Woolley and Fishbach, 「The Experience Matters More Than You Think: People Value Intrinsic Incentives More Inside Than Outside an Activity」; and A. A. Scholer, D. B. Miele, K. Murayama, and K. Fujita, 「New Directions in Self-Regulation: The Role of Metamotivational Beliefs,」 Current Directions in Psychological Science 27, no. 6 (2018): 437-442.

  [192]. A. V. Whillans, R. Dwyer, J. Yoon, and A. Schweyer, 「From Dollars to Sense: Placing a Monetary Value on Non-Cash Compensation Encourages Employees to Value Time over Money」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 18-059, 2019).

  [193]. Whillans, Dwyer, Yoon, and Schweyer, 「From Dollars to Sense.」

  [194]. Americans spend twenty-six minutes commuting each way to work. C. Ingraham, 「The Astonishing Human Potential Wasted on Commutes,」 Washington Post, February 25, 2016,

  [195]. The participant who is quoted was interviewed for a research project conducted by Thrive Global. The full interview is available at The Money Mix, 「Is Your Commute Making You Miserable?」 Thrive Global, July 16, 2019,

  [196]. Researchers often define commutes as a place for role transition, because they are the space between home and work life. See J. Jachimowicz, J. Lee, B. R. Staats, J. Menges, and F. Gino, 「Between Home and Work: Commuting as an Opportunity for Role Transitions」 (working paper, Harvard Business School NOM Unit, no. 16-077, 2019).

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  [198]. H. Jarvis, 「Moving to London Time: Household Co-Ordination and the Infrastructure of Everyday Life,」 Time and Society 14, no. 1 (2005): 133-154.

  [199]. T. Schwanen and T. De Jong, 「Exploring the Juggling of Responsibilities with Space-Time Accessibility Analysis,」 Urban Geography 29, no. 6 (2008): 556-580.

  [200]. T. Schwanen, 「Managing Uncertain Arrival Times Through Socio-Material Associations,」 Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 35, no. 6 (2008): 997-1011,

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  [202]. L. J. Levine and M. A. Safer, 「Sources of Bias in Memory for Emotions,」 Current Directions in Psychological Science 11, no. 5 (2002): 169-173; and T. D. Wilson and D. T. Gilbert, 「Affective Forecasting,」 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 35, no. 35 (2003): 345-411.

  [203]. K. Kushlev, S. J. Heintzelman, S. Oishi, and E. Diener, 「The Declining Marginal Utility of Social Time for Subjective Well-Being,」 Journal of Research in Personality 74 (2018): 124-140.

  [204]. Kushlev, Heintzelman, Oishi, and Diener, 「The Declining Marginal Utility of Social Time for Subjective Well-Being.」

  [205]. A. M. Grant and B. Schwartz, 「Too Much of a Good Thing: The Challenge and Opportunity of the Inverted U,」 Perspectives on Psychological Science 6, no. 1 (2011): 61-76.

  [206]. R. Wiseman, The Luck Factor (New York: Random House, 2004).

  [207]. R. Wiseman and C. Watt, 「Measuring Superstitious Belief: Why Lucky Charms Matter,」 Personality and Individual Differences 37 (2004): 1533-1541.

  [208]. Improvisation is being taught at top business schools in the United States, because it encourages people to be open to new ideas. For a course description, see Stanford Graduate School of Business, 「Humor: Serious Business,」 nd,

  [209]. M. Akinola, A. E. Martin, and K. W. Phillips, 「To Delegate or Not to Delegate: Gender Differences in Affective Associations and Behavioral Responses to Delegation,」 Academy of Management Journal 61, no. 4 (2018): 1467-1491; and L. Anik and M. I. Norton, 「Matchmaking Promotes Happiness,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 5, no. 6 (2014): 644-652.

  [210]. E. W. Dunn, L. B. Aknin, and M. I. Norton, 「Prosocial Spending and Happiness: Using Money to Benefit Others Pays Off,」 Current Directions in Psychological Science 23, no. 1 (2014): 41-47; and L. B. Aknin, A. V. Whillans, M. I. Norton, and E. W. Dunn, 「Happiness and Prosocial Behavior: An Evaluation of the Evidence,」 World Happiness Report (2019).

  [211]. G. Donnelly, A. V. Whillans, A. Wilson, and M. I. Norton, 「Communicating Resource Scarcity」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 19-066, 2019).

  [212]. J. Yoon, G. Donnelly, and A. V. Whillans, 「It Doesn’t Hurt to Ask (For More Time): Employees Often Overestimate the Interpersonal Costs of Extension Requests」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 19-064, 2019).

  [213]. C. Fritz and S. Sonnentag, 「Recovery, Well-Being, and Performance-Related Outcomes: The Role of Workload and Vacation Experiences,」 Journal of Applied Psychology 91, no. 4 (2006): 936.

  [214]. S. Sonnentag, 「Burnout Research: Adding an Off-Work and Day-Level Perspective,」 Work and Stress 19, no. 3, 2 (2005): 271-275; C. Fritz, S. Sonnentag, P. E. Spector, and J. A. McInroe, 「The Weekend Matters: Relationships Between Stress Recovery and Affective Experiences,」 Journal of Organizational Behavior 31, no. 8 (2010): 1137-1162; and C. S. Dewa, D. Loong, S. Bonato, N. X. Thanh, and P. Jacobs, 「How Does Burnout Affect Physician Productivity? A Systematic Literature Review,」 BMC Health Services Research 14, no. 1 (2014): 325.

  [215]. For a review of the literature showing that employees should ask for more money and ways to go about it, see D. M. Kolb and J. L. Porter, Negotiating at Work: Turn Small Wins into Big Gains (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2015); and D. Malhotra, 「15 Rules for Negotiating a Job Offer,」 Harvard Business Review, April 2014.

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  [218]. A. V. Whillans, A. C. Weidman, and E. W. Dunn, 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 3 (2016): 213-222.

  [219]. M. Wittmann and S. Lehnhoff, 「Age Effects in Perception of Time,」 Psychological Reports 97, no. 3 (2005): 921-935.

  [220]. M. Wittmann and M. P. Paulus, 「Temporal Horizons in Decision Making,」 Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics 2, no. 1 (2009): 1; and S. M. Janssen, M. Naka, and W. J. Friedman, 「Why Does Life Appear to Speed Up As People Get Older?」 Time and Society 22, no. 2 (2013): 274-290.

  第五章

  [221]. L. Giurge and A. V. Whillans, 「Beyond Material Poverty: Why Time Poverty Matters for Individuals, Organisations, and Nations」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 20-051, 2020).

  [222]. The best estimates of how much time paperwork burdens waste for US workers comes in at nearly $10 billion per year. C. R. Sunstein, 「Sludge and Ordeals,」 Duke Law Journal 68 (2019): 1843.

  [223]. The US Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA)—the agency that oversees the implementation of government regulations—estimated that the paperwork burdens had grown to nearly 12 billion hours:

  [224]. A. Finkelstein and M. J. Notowidigdo, 「Take-Up and Targeting: Experimental Evidence from SNAP,」 Quarterly Journal of Economics 134, no. 3 (2019): 1505-1556.

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  [227]. D. U. Himmelstein et al., 「A Comparison of Hospital Administrative Costs in Eight Nations: US Costs Exceed All Others by Far,」 Health Affairs 33, no. 9 (2014): 1586-1594.

  [228]. Executives and business professionals spend an average of twenty-three hours a week (trapped) in meetings—up from ten hours a week in the 1960s. See S. G. Rogelberg, C. Scott, and J. Kello, 「The Science and Fiction of Meetings,」 MIT Sloan Management Review 48, no. 2 (2007): 18-21; and S. G. Rogelberg, L. R. Shanock, and C. W. Scott, 「Wasted Time and Money in Meetings: Increasing Return on Investment,」 Small Group Research 43, no. 2 (2012): 236-245.

  [229]. M. E. Porter and N. Nohria, 「How CEOs Manage Time,」 Harvard Business Review, July-August 2018.

  [230]. J. Yoon, A. V. Whillans, and E. O』Brien, 「Superordinate Framing Increases Task Motivation」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, 2019), study 1.

  [231]. J. Pfeffer and D. R. Carney, 「The Economic Evaluation of Time Can Cause Stress,」 Academy of Management Discoveries 4, no. 1 (2018): 74-93.

  [232]. J. Hur, A. Lee-Yoon, and A. V. Whillans, 「Who Is More Useful? The Impact of Performance Incentives on Work and Personal Relationships」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, 2018).

  [233]. J. Pfeffer and S. E. DeVoe, 「The Economic Evaluation of Time: Organizational Causes and Individual Consequences,」 Research in Organizational Behavior 32 (2012): 47-62.

  [234]. For reviews, see S. E. DeVoe, 「The Psychological Consequence of Thinking About Time in Terms of Money,」 Current Opinion in Psychology 26 (2019): 103-105; A. Li, K. Rong, J. Gao, F. Tan, and Y. Peng, 「『Putting a Price on Time』: Conception, Consequences and Its Psychological Mechanism,」 Advances in Psychological Science 23, no. 10 (2015): 1679-1687; and A. Lee-Yoon and A. V. Whillans, 「Making Seconds Count: When Valuing Time Promotes Subjective Well-Being,」 Current Opinion in Psychology 26 (2019): 54-57.

  [235]. About one in four employees in the United States receives no paid vacation. The United States is the only country in which the government doesn’t guarantee that its workers receive paid vacation time. This is according to research conducted by the Center for Economic and Policy Research. The full report is available at

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  [237]. C. West, C. Mogilner, and S. E. DeVoe, 「Taking Vacation Increases Meaning at Work,」 proceedings of ACR 2017, Advances in Consumer Research 45 (2017): 63-67.

  [238]. J. De Bloom, M. Kompier, S. Geurts, C. de Weerth, T. Taris, and S. Sonnentag, 「Do We Recover from Vacation? Meta-Analysis of Vacation Effects on Health and Well-Being,」 Journal of Occupational Health 51 (2008): 13-25.

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  [241]. J. McCarthy, 「Taking Regular Vacations Can Help Boost Americans』 Well-Being,」 Gallup, December 30, 2014,

  [242]. S. Sonnentag, 「The Recovery Paradox: Portraying the Complex Interplay Between Job Stressors, Lack of Recovery, and Poor Well-Being,」 Research in Organizational Behavior 38 (2018): 169-185.

  [243]. H. Collins and A. V. Whillans, 「Accounting for Time,」 hbr.org, January 30, 2019,

  [244]. Of those that were unused, 236 million vacation days were forfeited completely, resulting in an estimated $70 billion in lost benefits. See the following reports: U.S. Travel Association, 「Paid Time Off Trends in the U.S.,」 nd, Sheet.pdf; and U.S. Travel Association, 「More Time Off, Less Time Used,」 nd, https://

  [245]. The cost of all cars bought in the United States in 2019 is $462 billion, per a recent estimate by JD Power: 「US Auto Sales Down in 2019 but Still Top 17 Million for Fifth Consecutive Year,」 CNBC, January 6, 2020,

  [246]. In one survey of more than 2,000 US adults who were in full-time jobs, 70 percent said that even when they took a vacation they didn’t disconnect from work. See B. Heitmann, 「Your Workplace Guide to Summer Vacation,」 blog post, July 11, 2018, https:// blog.linkedin.com/2018/july/11/your-workplace-guide-to-summer-vacation.

  [247]. N. Pasricha and S. Nigam, 「What One Company Learned from Forcing Employees to Use Their Vacation Time,」 hbr.org, August 11, 2017,

  [248]. D. Kim, 「Does Paid Vacation Leave Protect Against Depression Among Working Americans? A National Longitudinal Fixed Effects Analysis,」 Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health 45, no. 1 (2018): 22-32.

  [249]. A. V. Whillans, E. W. Dunn, and M. I. Norton, 「Overcoming Barriers to TimeSaving: Reminders of Future Busyness Encourage Consumers to Buy Time,」 Social Influence 13, no. 2 (2018): 117-124.

  [250]. M. Fassiotto, C. Simard, C. Sandborg, H. Valantine, and J. Raymond, 「An Integrated Career Coaching and Time-Banking System Promoting Flexibility, Wellness, and Success: A Pilot Program at Stanford University School of Medicine,」 Academic Medicine: Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges 93, no. 6 (2018): 881-887.

  [251]. Physicians』 quotations from H. MacCormick, 「Stanford’s 『Time Banking』 Program Helps Emergency Room Physicians Avoid Burnout,」 Scope, August 21, 2015, https:// scopeblog.stanford.edu/2015/08/21/stanfords-time-banking-program-helps-emergency-room-physicians-avoid-burnout/; and B. Schulte, 「Time in the Bank: A Stanford Plan to Save Doctors from Burnout,」 August 20, 2015,

  [252]. A. V. Whillans, R. Dwyer, J. Yoon, and A. Schweyer, 「From Dollars to Sense: Placing a Monetary Value on Non-Cash Compensation Encourages Employees to Value Time over Money」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 18-059, 2019).

  [253]. F. Gino, C. A. Wilmuth, and A. W. Brooks, 「Compared to Men, Women View Professional Advancement As Equally Attainable, but Less Desirable,」 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112, no. 40 (2015): 12354-12359.

  [254]. J. Yoon, G. Donnelly, and A. V. Whillans, 「It Doesn’t Hurt to Ask (For More Time): Employees Often Overestimate the Interpersonal Costs of Extension Requests」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 19-064, 2019).

  [255]. People who take all of their paid vacations are more likely to be promoted. See 「Time Off and Vacation Usage,」 U.S. Travel Association, nd, This research is summarized in S. Achor, 「Are the People Who Take Vacations the Ones Who Get Promoted?」 hbr.org, June 12, 2015,

  [256]. P. Choudhury, C. Foroughi, and B. Larson, 「Work-from-Anywhere: The Productivity Effects of Geographic Flexibility」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, Technology and Operations Mgt. Unit, no. 19-054, 2019).

  [257]. I. Hirway, Mainstreaming Unpaid Work: Time-Use Data in Developing Policies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

  [258]. For more detail on how US policies shape decisions about childcare and disproportionately burden women, see Brigid Schulte’s research—for example, 「New America Care Report Finds Child Care Doesn’t Work for Anyone,」 blog post, January 23, 2017,

  [259]. Data on time spent on medical paperwork are summarized in M. Sanger-Katz, 「Hate Paperwork? Medicaid Recipients Will Be Drowning in It,」 New York Times, Janu- ary 18, 2018.

  [260]. Sunstein, 「Sludge and Ordeals.」

  [261]. A. V. Whillans and C. West, 「Alleviating Time Poverty Among the Working Poor」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, 2020),

  [262]. M. Gates, 「Time Poverty: The Gender Gap No One’s Talking About,」 video, February 22, 2016,

  [263]. R. A. Easterlin, 「Does Economic Growth Improve the Human Lot? Some Empirical Evidence,」 in Nations and Households in Economic Growth: Essays in Honour of Moses Abramovitz, ed. P. A. David and M. W. Reder (New York: Academic Press, 1974); R. Costanza, M. Hart, J. Talberth, and S. Posner, 「Beyond GDP: The Need for New Measures of Progress,」 Pardee Papers, no. 4 (2009); E. Diener, S. Oishi, and R. E. Lucas, 「National Accounts of Subjective Well-Being,」 American Psychologist 70, no. 3 (2015): 234; and J. F. Helliwell, 「Well-Being, Social Capital and Public Policy: What’s New?」 Economic Journal 116, no. 510 (2006): C34-C45.

  [264]. L. Macchia and A. V. Whillans, 「Leisure Beliefs and the Subjective Well-Being of Nations,」 Journal of Positive Psychology (2019), doi/full/10.1080/17439760.2019.168941.

  [265]. Macchia and Whillans, 「Leisure Beliefs and the Subjective Well-Being of Nations.」

  [266]. S. Lee, W. J. Guo, A. Tsang, A. D. Mak, J. Wu, K. L. Ng, and K. Kwok, 「Evidence for the 2008 Economic Crisis Exacerbating Depression in Hong Kong,」 Journal of Affective Disorders 126, no. 1-2 (2010): 125-133.

  [267]. Macchia and Whillans, 「Leisure Beliefs and the Subjective Well-Being of Na- tions.」

  [268]. Ibid.

  [269]. L. Alderman, 「In Sweden, Experiment Turns Shorter Workdays into Bigger Gains,」 New York Times, May 20, 2016.

  [270]. See

  [271]. Research showing that Americans lost an average of 97 hours a year due to congestion—which cost them nearly $87 billion in 2018, or an average of $1,348 per driver—is attributable to a calculation from INRIX, a mobility analytics firm. It arrived at this number by analyzing 500 terabytes of data from 300 million sources that covered more than 5 million miles of road. The data underlying this report involves the con- gested or uncongested status of every segment of road for every minute of the day (that relies on INRIX-based traffic services). For more information,see 「INRIX: Congestion Costs Each American 97 Hours, $1348 a Year,」 INRIX, press release, February 11, 2019,

  [272]. A. Smith, 「Shared, Collaborative and on Demand: The New Digital Economy,」 Pew Research Center, press release, March 19, 2016.

  [273]. A. S. Kristal and A. V. Whillans, 「What We Can Learn from Five Naturalistic Field Experiments That Failed to Shift Commuter Behaviour,」 Nature Human Behaviour 4 (2020): 169-176.

  [274]. Quotations in K. Clayton, 「Be an Elegant Simplifier,」 Behavioral Scientist, February 7, 2019,

  [275]. A. H. Petersen, 「How Millennials Became the Burnout Generation,」 BuzzFeed News, January 5, 2019, nnials-burnout-generation-debt-work.

  結語

  1. Robert H. Frank, Under the Influence: Putting Peer Pressure to Work (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020).