參考文獻

  序言

  [1]. For a review linking time famine to negative outcomes, see L. Giurge and A. V. Whillans, 「Beyond Material Poverty: Why Time Poverty Matters for Individuals, Organisations, and Nations」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 20-051, 2020).

  [2]. My research documents a link between time orientation (as measured by the Taylor-versus-Morgan question) and well-being, work hours, volunteering, and daily time-use decisions. A. V. Whillans, A. C. Weidman, and E. W. Dunn, 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 3 (2016): 213-222.

  記住全網最快小説站𝕓𝕒𝕟𝕩𝕚𝕒𝕓𝕒.𝕔𝕠𝕞

  [3]. Whillans et al., 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness.」 See also J. F. Helliwell and R. D. Putnam, 「The Social Context of Well-Being,」 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences 359 (2004): 1435-1446.

  [4]. A. V. Whillans and E. W. Dunn, 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Social Connection,」 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 36, no. 8 (2019): 2549-2565.

  [5]. G. M. Sandstrom and E. W. Dunn, 「Social Interactions and Well-Being: The Surprising Power of Weak Ties,」 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 40, no. 7 (2014): 910-922.

  [6]. A. V. Whillans, J. Pow, and M. I. Norton, 「Buying Time PromotesRelationship Satisfaction」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 18-072, January 2020).

  [7]. A. Whillans, L. Macchia, and E. Dunn, 「Valuing Time over Money Predicts Happiness after a Major Life Transition: A Preregistered Longitudinal Study of Graduating Students,」 Science Advances 5, no. 9 (2019): eaax2615. For a review, see E. W. Dunn, A. V. Whillans, M. I. Norton, and L. B. Aknin, 「Prosocial Spending and Buying Time: Money As a Tool for Increasing Well-Being,」 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 61 (2019): 67-126.

  [8]. A. V. Whillans, A. Lee-Yoon, and E. W. Dunn, 「When Guilt Undermines Consumer Willingness to Buy Time」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 18-057, January 2018, revised January 2020).

  [9]. Giurge and Whillans, 「Beyond Material Poverty.」 See also I. Hirway, Mainstreaming Unpaid Work: Time-Use Data in Developing Policies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017).

  [10]. J. M. Darley and C. D. Batson, 「 『From Jerusalem to Jericho』: A Study of Situational and Dispositional Variables in Helping Behavior,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 27, no. 1 (1973): 100.

  [11]. Whillans et al., 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness.」 See also A. C. Hafenbrack, L. D. Cameron, G. M. Spreitzer, C. Zhang, L. J. Noval, and S. Shaffakat, 「Helping People by Being in the Present: Mindfulness Increases Prosocial Behavior,」 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes (2019).

  [12]. A. V. Whillans and E. W. Dunn, 「Thinking About Time As Money Decreases Environmental Behavior,」 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 127 (2015): 44-52.

  [13]. A. V. Whillans, 「Time for Happiness: Why the Pursuit of Money Isn’t Bringing You Joy—And What Will,」 hbr.org, January 29, 2019,

  第一章

  [14]. A. V. Whillans, 「Time for Happiness: Why the Pursuit of Money Isn’t Bringing You Joy—And What Will,」 hbr.org, January 29, 2019,

  [15]. D. S. Hamermesh and J. Lee, 「Stressed Out on Four Continents: Time Crunch or Yuppie Kvetch?」 Review of Economics and Statistics 89, no. 2 (2007): 374-383. See also D. S. Hamermesh, 「Not Enough Time?」 American Economist 59, no. 2 (2014): 119-127.

  [16]. K. Parker and W. Wang, Modern Parenthood: Roles of Moms and Dads Converge As They Balance Work and Family (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, March 14, 2013),

  [17]. Pew Research Center, 「Raising Kids and Running a Household: How Working Parents Share the Load,」 November 4, 2015,

  [18]. T. Kasser and K. M. Sheldon, 「Time Affluence as a Path Toward Personal Happiness and Ethical Business Practice: Empirical Evidence from Four Studies,」 Journal of Business Ethics 84, no. 2 (2009): 243-255. See also Whillans, 「Time for Happiness.」

  [19]. C. Mogilner, A. Whillans, and M. I. Norton, 「Time, Money, and Subjective Well- Being,」 in Handbook of Well-Being, Noba Scholar Handbook Series: Subjective Well-Being, eds. E. Diener, S. Oishi, and L. Tay (Salt Lake City, UT: DEF Publishers, 2018).

  [20]. S. Roxburgh, 「『There Just Aren’t Enough Hours in the Day』: The Mental Health Consequences of Time Pressure,」 Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45, no. 2 (2004): 115-131; J. Jabs and C. M. Devine, 「Time Scarcity and Food Choices: An Overview,」 Appetite 47, no. 2 (2006): 196-204; D. Venn and L. Strazdins, 「Your Money or Your Time? How Both Types of Scarcity Matter to Physical Activity and Healthy Eating,」 Social Science and Medicine 172 (2017): 98-106; J. De Graaf, ed., Take Back Your Time: Fighting Overwork and Time Poverty in America (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler, 2003).

  [21]. Gallup estimates the cost of stress to be about $190 billion per year in the United States as of 2013. Gallup, 「Report: State of the American Workplace,」 September 22, 2013, The estimated cost of stress on the US health care system is estimated at 5 percent to 8 percent of total health care spending each year: J. Goh, J. Pfeffer, and S. A. Zenios, 「The Relationship Between Workplace Stressors and Mortality and Health Costs in the United States,」 Management Science 62, no. 2 (2015): 608-628.

  [22]. W. F. Stewart, J. A. Ricci, E. Chee, S. R. Hahn, and D. Morganstein, 「Cost of Lost Productive Work Time Among US Workers with Depression,」 JAMA 289, no. 23 (2003): 3135-3144.

  [23]. P. E. Greenberg, A. A. Fournier, T. Sisitsky, C. T. Pike, and R. C. Kessler, 「The Economic Burden of Adults with Major Depressive Disorder in the US,」 Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 76, no. 2 (2015): 155-162.

  [24]. L. A. Perlow, 「The Time Famine: Toward a Sociology of Work Time,」 Administrative Science Quarterly 44, no. 1 (1999): 57-81.

  [25]. M. Aguiar and E. Hurst, 「Measuring Trends in Leisure: The Allocation of Time Over Five Decades,」 Quarterly Journal of Economics 122, no. 3 (2007): 969-1006.

  [26]. The OECD finds that full-time employees in the United States worked an average of 37.8 hours per week in 1950. In contrast, in 2017, they worked an average of 34.2 hours per week. J. C. Messenger, S. Lee, and D. McCann, Working Time around the World: Trends in Working Hours, Laws, and Policies in a Global Comparative Perspective (Oxford- shire, UK: Routledge, 2007).

  [27]. In a 2015 Pew survey, seven in ten Americans reported using online or sharing economy services. A. Smith, 「How Americans Define the Sharing Economy,」 Pew Research Center, May 20, 2016,

  [28]. In the United States, adults spend an average of three hours and twenty minutes each day using their smart phones—double the amount five years ago. R. Marvin, 「Tech Addiction by the Numbers: How Much Time We Spend Online,」 PC Magazine, June 11, 2018,

  [29]. Americans check their phones about once every twelve minutes. SWNS, 「Americans Check Their Phones 80 Times a Day: Study,」 New York Post, November 8, 2017,

  [30]. A. Bellezza, N. Paharia, and A. Keinan, 「Conspicuous Consumption of Time: When Busyness and Lack of Leisure Time Become a Status Symbol,」 Journal of Consumer Research 44, no. 1 (2016): 118-138.

  [31]. L. E. Park, D. E. Ward, and K. Naragon-Gainey, 「It’s All About the Money (For Some): Consequences of Financially Contingent Self-Worth,」 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43, no. 5 (2017): 601-622.

  [32]. M. Mazmanian, W. J. Orlikowski, and J. Yates, 「The Autonomy Paradox: The Implications of Mobile Email Devices for Knowledge Professionals,」 Organization Science 24, no. 5 (2013): 1337-1357.

  [33]. R. J. Dwyer, K. Kushlev, and E. W. Dunn, 「Smartphone Use Undermines Enjoyment of Face-to-Face Social Interactions,」 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 78 (2018): 233-239; K. Kushlev and E. W. Dunn, 「Smartphones Distract Parents from Cultivating Feelings of Connection When Spending Time with Their Children,」 Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 36, no. 6 (2019): 1619-1639; and K. Kushlev, R. Dwyer, and E. W. Dunn, 「The Social Price of Constant Connectivity: Smartphones Impose Subtle Costs on Well-Being,」 Current Directions in Psychological Science (2019).

  [34]. The term time confetti was popularized by Brigid Schulte in Overwhelmed: How to Work, Love, and Play When No One Has the Time (New York: Picador, 2014). See also S. E. Lindley, 「Making Time,」 in Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing (ACM, February 2015): 1442-1452.

  [35]. J. M. Hudson, J. Christensen, W. A. Kellogg, and T. Erickson, 「I』d Be Overwhelmed, but It’s Just One More Thing to Do: Availability and Interruption in Research Management,」 in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, eds. R. Grinter et al. (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 2006), 97-104; B. O』Conaill and D. Frohlich, 「Timespace in the Workplace: Dealing with Interruptions,」 in Conference Companion on Human Factors in Computing Systems, ed. C. Plaisant (New York: Association for Computing Machinery, 1994).

  [36]. Time poverty is caused in part by how well activities fit together in our minds. When we feel that we are trying to complete two conflicting activities (e.g., taking care of our kid and checking work email), these conflicting goals can increase feelings of time stress. J. Etkin, I. Evangelidis, and J. Aaker, 「Pressed for Time? Goal Conflict Shapes How Time Is Perceived, Spent, and Valued,」 Journal of Marketing Research 52, no. 3 (2015): 394-406. It is worth noting that some research finds that interruptions, such as commercial breaks, increase our enjoyment of hedonic experiences such as watching funny TV shows. See L. D. Nelson and T. Meyvis, 「Interrupted Consumption: Adaptation and the Disruption of Hedonic Experience,」 Journal of Marketing Research 45, no. 6 (2008): 654-664; and L. D. Nelson, T. Meyvis, and J. Galak, 「Enhancing the TelevisionViewing Experience Through Commercial Interruptions,」 Journal of Consumer Research 36, no. 2 (2009): 160-172. However, these studies typically involve passive interruptions that do not demand active attention (i.e., commercial breaks) and do not remind us of the productivity costs of engaging in the current leisure activity (i.e., watching TV).

  [37]. This fact is derived from a survey of 600 working Americans recruited through a private consulting firm. David Kelleher, 「Survey: 81% of US Employees Check Their Work Mail Outside Work Hours,」 TechTalk, May 20, 2013,

  [38]. Multitasking is stressful because it creates 「attention residue.」 It takes time to recover from shifting our minds away from the present, to another activity, and back to the present. S. Leroy, 「Why Is It So Hard to Do My Work? The Challenge of Attention Residue When Switching Between Work Tasks,」 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 109, no. 2 (2009): 168-181. Experiences of attention residue in task switching depend on the tasks we are switching between and how we think about them. S. Leroy and A. M. Schmidt, 「The Effect of Regulatory Focus on Attention Residue and Performance During Interruptions,」 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 137 (2016): 218-235.

  [39]. G. N. Tonietto, S. A. Malkoc, and S. M. Nowlis, 「When an Hour Feels Shorter: Future Boundary Tasks Alter Consumption by Contracting Time,」 Journal of Consumer Research 45, no. 5 (2019): 1085-1102.

  [40]. E. W. Dunn, A. V. Whillans, M. I. Norton, and L. B. Aknin, 「Prosocial Spending and Buying Time: Money As a Tool for Increasing Well-Being,」 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 61 (2020): 67-126.

  [41]. G. E. Donnelly, T. Zheng, E. Haisley, and M. I. Norton, 「The Amount and Source of Millionaires』 Wealth (Moderately) Predicts Their Happiness,」 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 44, no. 5 (2018): 684-699.

  [42]. K. Kushlev, E. W. Dunn, and R. E. Lucas, 「Higher Income Is Associated with Less Daily Sadness but Not More Daily Happiness,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 6, no. 5 (2015): 483-489; and N. W. Hudson, R. E. Lucas, M. B. Donnellan, and K. Kushlev, 「Income Reliably Predicts Daily Sadness, but Not Happiness: A Replication and Extension of Kushlev, Dunn, & Lucas (2015),」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 8 (2016): 828-836.

  [43]. A. T. Jebb, L. Tay, E. Diener, and S. Oishi, 「Happiness, Income Satiation and Turning Points around the World,」 Nature Human Behaviour 2, no. 1 (2018): 33.

  [44]. J. W. Zhang, R. T. Howell, and C. J. Howell, 「Living in Wealthy Neighborhoods Increases Material Desires and Maladaptive Consumption,」 Journal of Consumer Culture 16, no. 1 (2016): 297-316; and H. Kim, M. J. Callan, A. I. Gheorghiu, and W. J. Matthews, 「Social Comparison, Personal Relative Deprivation, and Materialism,」 British Journal of Social Psychology 56, no. 2 (2017): 373-392.

  [45]. P. M. Ruberton, J. Gladstone, and S. Lyubomirsky, 「How Your Bank Balance Buys Happiness: The Importance of 『Cash on Hand』 to Life Satisfaction,」 Emotion 16, no. 5 (2016): 575.

  [46]. L. B. Aknin, M. I. Norton, and E. W. Dunn, 「From Wealth to Well-Being? Money Matters, but Less Than People Think,」 Journal of Positive Psychology 4, no. 6 (2009): 523-527.

  [47]. D. Kahneman, A. B. Krueger, D. Schkade, N. Schwarz, and A. A. Stone, 「Would You Be Happier If You Were Richer? A Focusing Illusion,」 Science 312, no. 5782 (2006): 1908-1910.

  [48]. Hamermesh and Lee, 「Stressed Out on Four Continents: Time Crunch or Yuppie Kvetch?」

  [49]. S. E. DeVoe and J. Pfeffer, 「Time Is Tight: How Higher Economic Value of Time Increases Feelings of Time Pressure,」 Journal of Applied Psychology 96, no. 4 (2011): 665.

  [50]. Ibid.

  [51]. A. Furnham, M. Bond, P. Heaven, D. Hilton, T. Lobel, J. Masters, and H. Van Daalen, 「A Comparison of Protestant Work Ethic Beliefs in Thirteen Nations,」 Journal of Social Psychology 133, no. 2 (1993): 185-197. In light of strong Protestant work ethic beliefs in the United States (historically and present-day), in the United States busyness is seen as a status symbol. For example, people who announce that they are very busy are granted higher social standing in the United States and are seen as wealthier and more important than people who announce that they have a lot of leisure time available. See Bellezza et al., 「Conspicuous Consumption of Time: When Busyness and Lack of Leisure Time Become a Status Symbol.」 This effect holds only in the United States and not in Europe.

  [52]. J. D. Hur and L. F. Nordgren, 「Paying for Performance: Performance Incentives Increase Desire for the Reward Object,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 111, no. 3 (2016): 301.

  [53]. I. Dar-Nimrod, C. D. Rawn, D. R. Lehman, and B. Schwartz, 「The Maximization Paradox: The Costs of Seeking Alternatives,」 Personality and Individual Differences 46, no. 495-6 (2009): 631-635; and S. I. Rick, C. E. Cryder, and G. Loewenstein, 「Tightwads and Spendthrifts,」 Journal of Consumer Research 34, no. 6 (2008): 767-782.

  [54]. Working parents with young children are time stressed: H. Buddelmeyer, D. S. Hamermesh, and M. Wooden, 「The Stress Cost of Children on Moms and Dads,」 European Economic Review 109 (2018): 148-161; L. Craig and J. E. Brown, 「Feeling Rushed: Gendered Time Quality, Work Hours, Nonstandard Work Schedules, and Spousal Crossover,」 Journal of Marriage and Family 79, no. 1 (2017): 225-242. Even busy working parents report they would rather have more money than more time: A. V. Whillans, A. C. Weidman, and E. W. Dunn, 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 3 (2016): 213-222, study 4.

  [55]. A. V. Whillans, E. W. Dunn, P. Smeets, R. Bekkers, and M. I. Norton, 「Buying Time Promotes Happiness,」 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 32 (2017): 8523-8527, study 9.

  [56]. Data: Open Science Framework, 「Time Use and Happiness of Millionaires,」 June 16, 2016, See also P. Smeets, A. Whillans, R. Bekkers, and M. I. Norton, 「Time Use and Happiness of Millionaires: Evidence from the Netherlands,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 11, no. 3. (2020): 295-307.

  [57]. D. Soman, 「The Mental Accounting of Sunk Time Costs: Why Time Is Not Like Money,」 Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 14, no. 3 (2001): 169-185.

  [58]. Derek Thompson, a staff writer for The Atlantic, provided this quotation in a February 2019 article, 「Workism Is Making Americans Miserable,」

  [59]. J. M. Horowitz and N. Graf, 「Most U.S. Teens See Anxiety and Depression as a Major Problem Among Their Peers,」 Pew Research Center, February 20, 2019, https://

  [60]. For a review, see A. Keinan, S. Bellezza, and N. Paharia, 「The Symbolic Value of Time,」 Current Opinion in Psychology 26 (2019): 58-61.

  [61]. F. Solt, 「The Standardized World Income Inequality Database,」 Social Science Quarterly 97, no. 5 (2016): 1267-1281.

  [62]. P. K. Piff, M. W. Kraus, and D. Keltner, 「Unpacking the Inequality Paradox: The Psychological Roots of Inequality and Social Class,」 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 57 (2018): 53-124.

  [63]. Whillans et al., 「Valuing Time over Money Predicts Happiness after a Major Life Transition: A Preregistered Longitudinal Study of Graduating Students.」

  [64]. A. Whillans, 「Exchanging Cents for Seconds: The Happiness Benefits of Choosing Time over Money」 (doctoral dissertation, University of British Columbia, 2017), study 5, section 2.9.

  [65]. J. C. Lee, D. L. Hall, and W. Wood, 「Experiential or Material Purchases? Social Class Determines Purchase Happiness,」 Psychological Science 29, no. 7 (2018): 1031-1039; and A. Whillans, A. Lee-Yoon, and E. W. Dunn, 「When Guilt Undermines Consumer Willingness to Buy Time」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 18-057, January 2018, revised January 2020), study 2.

  [66]. L. Park, Y. Hun Jung, J. Shultz-lee, D. Ward, P. Piff, and A. V. Whillans, 「Psychological Pathways Linking Income Inequality in Adolescence to Well-Being in Adulthood」 (working paper).

  [67]. Bellezza et al., 「Conspicuous Consumption of Time: When Busyness and Lack of Leisure Time Become a Status Symbol」; C. K. Hsee, A. X. Yang, and L. Wang, 「Idleness Aversion and the Need for Justifiable Busyness,」 Psychological Science 21, no. 7 (2010), 926-930; and C. K. Hsee, J. Zhang, C. F. Cai, and S. Zhang, 「Overearning,」 Psychological Science 24, no. 6 (2013): 852-859. For a review, see A. X. Yang and C. K. Hsee, 「Idleness Versus Busyness,」 Current Opinion in Psychology 26 (2019): 15-18.

  [68]. Bellezza et al., 「Conspicuous Consumption of Time: When Busyness and Lack of Leisure Time Become a Status Symbol.」

  [69]. T. D. Wilson, D. A. Reinhard, E. C. Westgate, D. T. Gilbert, N. Ellerbeck, C. Hahn, and A. Shaked, 「Just Think: The Challenges of the Disengaged Mind,」 Science 345, no. 6192 (2014): 75-77.

  [70]. N. Whitehead, 「People Would Rather Be Electrically Shocked Than Left Alone with Their Thoughts,」 Science, July 3, 2014,

  [71]. M. Haller, M. Hadler, and G. Kaup, 「Leisure Time in Modern Societies: A New Source of Boredom and Stress?」 Social Indicators Research 111, no. 2 (2013): 403-434.

  [72]. For a review, see J. D. Creswell, 「Mindfulness Interventions,」 Annual Review of Psychology 68 (2017): 491-516.

  [73]. G. Zauberman and J. G. Lynch Jr., 「Resource Slack and Propensity to Discount Delayed Investments of Time Versus Money,」 Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 134, no. 1 (2005): 23.

  [74]. H. E. Hershfield, 「The Self over Time,」 Current Opinion in Psychology 26 (2019): 72-75.

  [75]. R. Buehler, D. Griffin, and M. Ross, 「Exploring the 『Planning Fallacy』: Why People Underestimate Their Task Completion Times,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67, no. 3 (1994): 366; and R. Buehler and D. Griffin, 「Planning, Personality, and Prediction: The Role of Future Focus in Optimistic Time Predictions,」 Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 92, no. 1-2 (2003): 80-90.

  [76]. K. Wilcox, J. Laran, A. T. Stephen, and P. P. Zubcsek, 「How Being Busy Can Increase Motivation and Reduce Task Completion Time,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 110, no. 3 (2016): 371.

  [77]. M. Zhu, Y. Yang, and C. K. Hsee, 「The Mere Urgency Effect,」 Journal of Consumer Research 45, no. 3 (2018): 673-690.

  [78]. Wilcox et al., 「How Being Busy Can Increase Motivation and Reduce Task Completion Time.」

  第二章

  [79]. Major life decisions can have profound and lasting changes for subjective well-being. For related research, see G. Marum, J. Clench-Aas, R. B. Nes, and R. K. Raanaas, 「The Relationship Between Negative Life Events, Psychological Distress and Life Satisfaction: A Population-Based Study,」 Quality of Life Research 23, no. 2 (2014): 601-611.

  [80]. A. V. Whillans, A. C. Weidman, and E. W. Dunn, 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 7, no. 3 (2016): 213-222.

  [81]. S. M. Tully and E. Sharma, 「Context-Dependent Drivers of Discretionary Debt Decisions: Explaining Willingness to Borrow for Experiential Purchases,」 Journal of Consumer Research 44, no. 5 (2017): 960-973; S. M. Tully, H. E. Hershfield, and T. Meyvis, 「Seeking Lasting Enjoyment with Limited Money: Financial Constraints Increase Preference for Material Goods over Experiences,」 Journal of Consumer Research 42, no. 1 (2015): 59-75; and L. E. Park, D. E. Ward, and K. Naragon-Gainey, 「It’s All About the Money (For Some): Consequences of Financially Contingent Self-Worth,」 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 43, no. 5 (2017): 601-622.

  [82]. S. C. Matz, J. J. Gladstone, and D. Stillwell, 「Money Buys Happiness When Spending Fits Our Personality,」 Psychological Science 27, no. 5 (2016): 715-725; and J. C. Lee, D. L. Hall, and W. Wood, 「Experiential or Material Purchases? Social Class Determines Purchase Happiness,」 Psychological Science 29, no. 7 (2018): 1031-1039.

  [83]. E. W. Dunn, A. V. Whillans, M. I. Norton, and L. B. Aknin, 「Prosocial Spending and Buying Time: Money As a Tool for Increasing Well-Being,」 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 61 (2020): 67-126.

  [84]. L. I. Catalino and B. L. Fredrickson, 「A Tuesday in the Life of a Flourisher: The Role of Positive Emotional Reactivity in Optimal Mental Health,」 Emotion 11, no. 4 (2011): 938.

  [85]. C. Young and C. Lim, 「Time As a Network Good: Evidence from Unemployment and the Standard Workweek,」 Sociological Science 1 (2014): 10.

  [86]. M. P. White and P. Dolan, 「Accounting for the Richness of Daily Activities,」 Psychological Science 20, no. 8 (2009): 1000-1008.

  [87]. S. K. Nelson, K. Kushlev, and S. Lyubomirsky, 「The Pains and Pleasures of Parenting: When, Why, and How Is Parenthood Associated with More or Less Well- Being?」 Psychological Bulletin 140, no. 3 (2014): 846.

  [88]. T. Burchardt, 「Time, Income and Substantive Freedom: A Capability Approach,」 Time and Society 19, no. 3 (2010): 318-344.

  [89]. R. E. Goodin, J. M. Rice, M. Bittman, and P. Saunders, 「The Time-Pressure Illusion: Discretionary vs. Free Time,」 Social Indicators Research 73, no. 1 (2005): 43-70; and R. E. Goodin, J. M. Rice, A. Parpo, and L. Eriksson, Discretionary Time: A New Measure of Freedom (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).

  [90]. For reviews looking at when, whether, and how simple actions can result in lasting changes in well-being, see S. Lyubomirsky and K. Layous, 「How Do Simple Positive Activities Increase Well-Being?」 Current Directions in Psychological Science 22, no. 1 (2013): 57-62; and K. Layous and S. Lyubomirsky, 「The How, Who, What, When, and Why of Happiness: Mechanisms Underlying the Success of Positive Interventions,」 in Light and Dark Side of Positive Emotion, ed. J. Gruber and J. Moskowitz (Oxford: Oxford University Press, in press).

  [91]. D. Kahneman and A. B. Krueger, 「Developments in the Measurement of Subjective Well-Being,」 Journal of Economic Perspectives 20, no. 1 (2006): 3-24; A. B. Krueger, D. Kahneman, D. Schkade, N. Schwarz, and A. A. Stone, 「National Time Accounting: The Currency of Life,」 in Measuring the Subjective Well-Being of Nations: National Accounts of Time Use and Well-Being, ed. A. B. Krueger (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009), 9-86; and A. A. Stone and C. Mackie, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 「The Subjective Well-Being Module of the American Time Use Survey: Assessment for Its Continuation,」 in Subjective Well-Being: Measuring Happiness, Suffering, and Other Dimensions of Experience (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2013).

  [92]. A. Mani, S. Mullainathan, E. Shafir, and J. Zhao, 「Poverty Impedes Cognitive Function,」 Science 341, no. 6149 (2013): 976-980; S. Mullainathan and E. Shafir, Scarcity: Why Having Too Little Means So Much (New York: Macmillan, 2013); G. V. Pepper and D. Nettle, 「Strengths, Altered Investment, Risk Management, and Other Elaborations on the Behavioural Constellation of Deprivation,」 Behavioral and Brain Sciences 40 (2017); and A. K. Shah, S. Mullainathan, and E. Shafir, 「Some Consequences of Having Too Little,」 Science 338, no. 6107 (2012): 682-685.

  [93]. C. Roux, K. Goldsmith, and A. Bonezzi, 「On the Psychology of Scarcity: When Reminders of Resource Scarcity Promote Selfish (and Generous) Behavior,」 Journal of Consumer Research 42, no. 4 (2015): 615-631; and Tully et al., 「Seeking Lasting Enjoyment with Limited Money: Financial Constraints Increase Preference for Material Goods over Experiences.」

  [94]. E. L. Kelly and P. Moen, 「Rethinking the Clockwork of Work: Why Schedule Control May Pay Off at Work and at Home,」 Advances in Developing Human Resources 9, no. 4 (2007): 487-506; E. L. Kelly, P. Moen, and E. Tranby, 「Changing Workplaces to Reduce Work-Family Conflict: Schedule Control in a White-Collar Organization,」 American Sociological Review 76, no. 2 (2011): 265-290; P. Moen, E. L. Kelly, E. Tranby, and Q. Huang, 「Changing Work, Changing Health: Can Real Work-Time Flexibility Promote Health Behaviors and Well-Being?」 Journal of Health and Social Behavior 52, no. 4 (2011): 404-429; and P. Moen, E. L. Kelly, and R. Hill, 「Does Enhancing Work-Time Control and Flexibility Reduce Turnover? A Naturally Occurring Experiment,」 Social Problems 58, no. 1 (2011): 69-98.

  [95]. For a review, see E. E. Kossek, L. B. Hammer, E. L. Kelly, and P. Moen, 「Designing Work, Family & Health Organizational Change Initiatives,」 Organizational Dynamics 43, no. 1 (2014): 53.

  [96]. P. Smeets, A. Whillans, R. Bekkers, and M. I. Norton, 「Time Use and Happiness of Millionaires: Evidence from the Netherlands,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 11, no. 3. (2020): 295-307.

  [97]. N. Lathia, G. M. Sandstrom, C. Mascolo, and P. J. Rentfrow, 「Happier People Live More Active Lives: Using Smartphones to Link Happiness and Physical Activity,」 PLOS ONE 12, no. 1 (2017).

  [98]. Smeets et al., 「Time Use and Happiness of Millionaires: Evidence from the Netherlands」; for a review, see Mogilner et al., 「Time, Money, and Subjective Well-Being.」

  [99]. Data available upon request.

  [100]. B. Schwartz, A. Ward, J. Monterosso, S. Lyubomirsky, K. White,and D. R. Lehman, 「Maximizing Versus Satisficing: Happiness Is a Matter of Choice,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 83, no. 5 (2002): 1178.

  [101]. J. Holt-Lunstad, T. B. Smith, M. Baker, T. Harris, and D. Stephenson, 「Loneliness and Social Isolation As Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review,」 Perspectives on Psychological Science 10, no. 2 (2015): 227-237.

  [102]. G. M. Sandstrom and E. W. Dunn, 「Social Interactions and Well-Being: The Surprising Power of Weak Ties,」 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 40, no. 7 (2014): 910-922; G. M. Sandstrom and E. W. Dunn, 「Is Efficiency Overrated? Minimal Social Interactions Lead to Belonging and Positive Affect,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 5, no. 4 (2014): 437-442; N. Epley and J. Schroeder, 「Mistakenly Seeking Solitude,」 Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 143, no. 5 (2014): 1980; and E. J. Boothby, G. Cooney, G. M. Sandstrom, and M. S. Clark, 「The Liking Gap in Conversations: Do People Like Us More Than We Think?」 Psychological Science 29, no. 11 (2018): 1742-1756.

  [103]. C. Mogilner, Z. Chance, and M. I. Norton, 「Giving Time Gives You Time,」 Psychological Science 23, no. 10 (2012): 1233-1238; and Z. Chance and M. I. Norton, 「I Give Therefore I Have: Charitable Giving and Subjective Wealth,」 paper presented at the Association for Consumer Research Annual North American Conference, Jacksonville, FL, October 1, 2010. When we see ourselves giving away valuable resources (such as time and money), it sends a signal to ourselves that we must have enough of both of these resources. This is known as self-perception theory: D. J. Bem, 「Self-Perception Theory,」 Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 6 (1972): 1-62.

  [104]. M. Rudd, K. D. Vohs, and J. Aaker, 「Awe Expands People’s Perception of Time, Alters Decision Making, and Enhances Well-Being,」 Psychological Science 23, no. 10 (2012): 1130-1136.

  [105]. D. Keltner and J. Haidt, 「Approaching Awe, a Moral, Spiritual, and Aesthetic Emotion,」 Cognition and Emotion 17 (2003): 297-314; P. K. Piff, P. Dietze, M. Feinberg, D. M. Stancato, and D. Keltner, 「Awe, the Small Self, and Prosocial Behavior,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 108, no. 6 (2015): 883; J. W. Zhang, P. K. Piff, R. Iyer, S. Koleva, and D. Keltner, 「An Occasion for Unselfing: Beautiful Nature Leads to Prosociality,」 Journal of Environmental Psychology 37 (2014): 61-72.

  [106]. M. E. Porter and N. Nohria, 「How CEOs Manage Time,」 Harvard Business Review, July-August 2018.

  [107]. Dunn et al., 「Prosocial Spending and Buying Time: Money As a Tool for Increasing Well-Being.」

  [108]. S. Frederick, N. Novemsky, J. Wang, R. Dhar, and S. Nowlis, 「Opportunity Cost Neglect,」 Journal of Consumer Research 36, no. 4 (2009): 553-561; and M. Gagne and A. Whillans, 「Overcoming Barriers to Buying Happier Time,」 Undergraduate Journal of Psychology 75 (2016). Data available upon request.

  [109]. A. V. Whillans, 「Time for Happiness: Why the Pursuit of Money Isn’t Bringing You Joy—And What Will,」 Special issues on HBR Big Idea: Time Poor and Unhappy, hbr.org, January 29, 2019,

  [110]. Whillans, 「Time for Happiness.」

  [111]. Whillans, 「Time for Happiness.」

  [112]. The participant was recruited through online data collection conducted in collaboration with the New York Times. NYT gave me permission to use the data collected as part of an article it published, as long as we masked participants』 names and any identifying information. C. Richards, 「Maybe You Shouldn’t Outsource Everything After All,」 May 7, 2018,

  [113]. A. V. Whillans and C. West, 「Alleviating Time Poverty Among the Working Poor」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, 2020),

  [114]. A. V. Whillans and E. W. Dunn, 「When Guilt Undermines Consumer Willingness to Buy Time」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 18-057, January 2018, revised January 2020), study 2.

  [115]. A. Lee-Yoon, G. Donnelly, and A. V. Whillans, 「Overcoming Resource Scarcity: Consumers』 Responses to Gifts Intending to Save Time and Money」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 20-072, 2020).

  [116]. The participant was recruited through online data collection conducted in collaboration with the New York Times. NYT gave me permission to use the data collected as part of an article it published, as long as participants』 names and any identifying information was masked. C. Richards, 「Maybe You Shouldn’t Outsource Everything After All,」 May 7, 2018,

  [117]. A. V. Whillans, J. Pow, and M. I. Norton, 「Buying Time Promotes Relationship Satisfaction」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 18-072, January 2020); and M. S. Clark and J. Mils, 「The Difference Between Communal and Exchange Relationships: What It Is and Is Not,」 Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 19, no. 6 (1993): 684-691.

  [118]. Lee-Yoon et al., 「Overcoming Resource Scarcity: Consumers』 Responses to Gifts Intending to Save Time and Money.」

  [119]. J. Galak, J. Givi, and E. F. Williams, 「Why Certain Gifts Are Great to Give but Not to Get: A Framework for Understanding Errors in Gift Giving,」 Current Directions in Psychological Science 25, no. 6 (2016): 380-385.

  [120]. P. E. Jose, B. T. Lim, and F. B. Bryant, 「Does Savoring Increase Happiness? A Daily Diary Study,」 Journal of Positive Psychology 7, no. 3 (2012): 176-187; and J. Quoidbach, E. V. Berry, M. Hansenne, and M. Mikolajczak, 「Positive Emotion Regulation and Well-Being: Comparing the Impact of Eight Savoring and Dampening Strategies,」 Personality and Individual Differences 49, no. 5 (2010): 368-373.

  [121]. C. West, C. Mogilner, and S. DeVoe, 「Taking Vacation Increases Meaning at Work,」 ACR North American Advances (2017). For a review, see C. Mogilner, H. E. Hershfield, and J. Aaker, 「Rethinking Time: Implications for Well-Being,」 Consumer Psychology Review 1, no. 1 (2018): 41-53.

  [122]. J. Etkin, I. Evangelidis, and J. Aaker, 「Pressed for Time? Goal Conflict Shapes How Time Is Perceived, Spent, and Valued,」 Journal of Marketing Research 52, no. 3 (2015): 394-406.

  [123]. A. J. Crum, P. Salovey, and S. Achor, 「Rethinking Stress: The Role of Mindsets in Determining the Stress Response,」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 104, no. 4 (2013): 716; and O. H. Zahrt and A. J. Crum, 「Perceived Physical Activity and Mortality: Evidence from Three Nationally Representative US Samples,」 Health Psychology 36, no. 11 (2017): 1017.

  [124]. Crum et al., 「Rethinking Stress: The Role of Mindsets in Determining the Stress Response.」

  [125]. J. Jachimowicz, J. Lee, B. R. Staats, J. Menges, and F. Gino, 「Between Home and Work: Commuting As an Opportunity for Role Transitions」 (working paper, Harvard Business School NOM Unit, no. 16-077, 2019).

  [126]. L. L. Carstensen, 「Selectivity Theory: Social Activity in Life-Span Context,」 Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics 11, no. 1 (1991): 195-217; L. L. Carstensen, 「Social and Emotional Patterns in Adulthood: Support for Socioemotional Selectivity Theory,」 Psychology and Aging 7, no. 3 (1992): 331; and L. L.Carstensen, 「Evidence for a Life-Span Theory of Socioemotional Selectivity,」 Current Directions in Psychological Science 4, no. 5 (1995): 151-156.

  [127]. A. Bhattacharjee and C. Mogilner, 「Happiness from Ordinary and Extraordinary Experiences,」 Journal of Consumer Research 41, no. 1 (2013): 1-17.

  [128]. J. L. Kurtz, 「Looking to the Future to Appreciate the Present: The Benefits of Perceived Temporal Scarcity,」 Psychological Science 19, no. 12 (2008): 1238-1241; and K. Layous, J. Kurtz, J. Chancellor, and S. Lyubomirsky, 「Reframing the Ordinary: Imagining Time As Scarce Increases Well-Being,」 Journal of Positive Psychology 13, no. 3 (2018): 301-308.

  [129]. J. Quoidbach and E. W. Dunn, 「Give It Up: A Strategy for Combating Hedonic Adaptation,」 Social Psychological and Personality Science 4, no. 5 (2013): 563-568.

  [130]. Underlying data available upon request.

  [131]. R. A. Emmons and C. M. Shelton, 「Gratitude and the Science of Positive Psychology,」 Handbook of Positive Psychology 18 (2002): 459-471; and J. W. Pennebaker, 「Writing About Emotional Experiences As a Therapeutic Process,」 Psychological Science 8, no. 3 (1997): 162-166.

  [132]. M. Li and S. DeVoe, 「Putting Off Balance for Later: A Temporal Construal Approach to Time Allocation」 (working paper, UCLA School of Management, 2020).

  [133]. E. T. Higgins, 「Value from Regulatory Fit,」 Current Directions in Psychological Science 14, no. 4 (2005): 209-213; and J. Cesario, H. Grant, and E. T. Higgins, 「Regulatory Fit and Persuasion: Transfer from 『Feeling Right,』」 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86, no. 3 (2004): 388.

  [134]. Whillans et al., 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness.」

  [135]. Adapted from D. Soman, 「The Mental Accounting of Sunk Time Costs: Why Time Is Not Like Money,」 Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 14, no. 3 (2001): 169-185.

  [136]. H. Collins and A. V. Whillans, 「Accounting for Time,」 hbr.org, January 30, 2019,

  [137]. S. Moore and J. P. Shepherd, 「The Cost of Fear: Shadow Pricing the Intangible Costs of Crime,」 Applied Economics 38, no. 3 (2006): 293-300; N. Powdthavee, 「Putting a Price Tag on Friends, Relatives, and Neighbours: Using Surveys of Life Satisfaction to Value Social Relationships,」 Journal of Socio-Economics 37, no. 4 (2008): 1459-1480; and N. Powdthavee and B. Van Den Berg, 「Putting Different Price Tags on the Same Health Condition: Re-Evaluating the Well-Being Valuation Approach,」 Journal of Health Economics 30, no. 5 (2011): 1032-1043.

  [138]. I am basing the income increase of happiness on my prior research showing that earning $10,000 more in household income was linked to a happiness boost of about 0.5 points on a 10-point happiness scale. I observed this income increase in a nationally representative sample of employed Americans living in the United States (N=1265). I also based my data on showing that people’s happiness changes by about 0.5 points on a happiness scale from an experiment showing the direct happiness increase from buying time. Both studies are reported in A. V. Whillans, E. W. Dunn, P. Smeets, R. Bekkers, and M. I. Norton, 「Buying Time Promotes Happiness,」 Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, no. 32 (2017): 8523-8527, study 9.

  [139]. I chose to make the annual income in these examples $50,000 because this amount is slightly less than the median annual household income in the United States, according to the US Census Bureau, and it is a round number. The US Census Bureau reported that the median household income was $61,372 in 2018;

  [140]. L. Giurge and A. V. Whillans, 「Beyond Material Poverty: Why Time Poverty Matters for Individuals, Organisations, and Nations」 (working paper, Harvard Business School, no. 20-051, 2020).

  [141]. Study 4 of Whillans et al., 「Valuing Time over Money Is Associated with Greater Happiness.」

  [142]. I. Dar-Nimrod, C. D. Rawn, D. R. Lehman, and B. Schwartz, 「The Maximization Paradox: The Costs of Seeking Alternatives,」 Personality and Individual Differences 46, no. 5-6 (2009): 631-635.

  [143]. Underlying data available upon request.

  [144]. Whillans, 「Time for Happiness: Why the Pursuit of Money Isn’t Bringing You Joy—And What Will.」

  [145]. Nine out of ten consumers seek bargains when online shopping, a task that takes about thirty-two minutes: H. Leggatt, 「Survey Reveals How Long Shoppers Spend Comparing Prices Online,」 BizReport, November 3, 2014,

  [146]. Collins and Whillans, 「Accounting for Time.」